1Department of Pediatrics, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, Korea
2Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, Korea
3Department of Pediatrics, Korea Cancer Center Hospital, Seoul, Korea
4Department of Pediatrics, Seoul National University Children’s Hospital, Seoul, Korea
5Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, Korea
6Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, Korea
Copyright © 2021 Korean Diabetes Association
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
CONFLICTS OF INTEREST
No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Conception or design: H.R.C., J.H.M., J.S.L., Y.A.L., C.H.S., J.S.H., S.H.C., H.C.J.
Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: H.R.C., J.H.M.J.S.L., S.H.K., H.C.J.
Drafting the work or revising: H.R.C., J.H.M., H.C.J.
Final approval of the manuscript: H.C.J.
FUNDING
This work was supported by research grants from Seoul National University Bundang Hospital (Grant No.11-2010-015) and Korea Health Technology R&D Project, Ministry of Health and Welfare (Grant No. A111362).
Variable | OGDM (n=25) | Control (n=49) | P value |
---|---|---|---|
Sex, male:female | 12:13 | 26:23 | 0.806 |
Age at study, yr | 5.6 (5.00–6.70) | 5.9 (5.00–6.70) | 0.087 |
Birth weight, kg | 3.34 (2.81–4.00) | 3.15 (2.58–4.00) | 0.084 |
Height, cm | 112.9 (101.7–128.0) | 114.0 (105.0–128.0) | 0.407 |
Weight, kg | 20.5 (14.6–28) | 21.1 (17.0–33.9) | 0.219 |
BMI, kg/m2 | 16.0 (14.1–18.4) | 16.1 (13.7–23.1) | 0.273 |
BMI z-score | 0.33 (–1.16 to 1.53) | 0.37 (–1.57 to 2.96) | 0.285 |
DXA body composition | |||
Total fat mass, g | 3,769 (1,600–9,315) | 2,245 (1,037–9,795) | 0.004a |
Total fat, % | 18.0 (9.9–36.6) | 11.6 (4.7–33.4) | <0.001a |
FMI, kg/m2 | 2.68 (1.40–7.28) | 1.75 (0.68–7.73) | 0.002a |
Truncal fat mass, g | 1,289 (578–4,615) | 870 (314–5,292) | 0.017a |
Truncal fat, % | 16.0 (8.1–40.5) | 10.0 (4.0–36.0) | 0.002a |
Truncal FMI, kg/m2 | 1.00 (0.49–3.61) | 0.67 (0.24–4.22) | 0.009a |
Leg fat mass, g | 1,638 (606–3,674) | 961 (333–3,850) | 0.002a |
Leg fat, % | 23.5 (12.9–39.0) | 15.4 (4.9–35.7) | <0.001a |
Leg FMI, kg/m2 | 1.17 (0.53–2.47) | 0.75 (0.22–2.48) | 0.001a |
Lean mass, g | 15,688 (11,291–19,566) | 16,941 (14,522–21,943) | 0.001a |
LMI, kg/m2 | 12.1 (10.9–13.2) | 13.0 (11.6–15.2) | <0.001a |
BMC, g | 675 (488–846) | 698 (487–991) | 0.081 |
Variable | Value |
100 g OGTT |
HbA1c | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fasting | 1-hr | 2-hr | 3-hr | AUC | |||
Total fat mass, g | r | 0.49 | 0.337 | –0.074 | 0.473 | 0.298 | 0.371 |
P | 0.018a | NC | NC | 0.023a | NC | 0.081 | |
Total fat, % | r | 0.463 | 0.336 | –0.029 | 0.466 | 0.313 | 0.361 |
P | 0.026a | NC | NC | 0.025a | NC | 0.091 | |
FMI, kg/m2 | r | 0.524 | 0.381 | 0.01 | 0.504 | 0.367 | 0.407 |
P | 0.01a | 0.073 | NC | 0.014a | 0.085 | 0.054 | |
Truncal fat mass, g | r | 0.571 | 0.401 | 0.028 | 0.558 | 0.402 | 0.427 |
P | 0.004a | 0.058 | NC | 0.006a | 0.057 | 0.042a | |
Truncal fat, % | r | 0.52 | 0.397 | 0.042 | 0.545 | 0.397 | 0.408 |
P | 0.011a | 0.061 | NC | 0.007a | 0.061 | 0.053 | |
Truncal FMI, kg/m2 | r | 0.593 | 0.429 | 0.098 | 0.582 | 0.454 | 0.452 |
P | 0.003a | 0.041a | NC | 0.004a | 0.03a | 0.03a | |
Leg fat mass, g | r | 0.376 | 0.23 | –0.217 | 0.336 | 0.141 | 0.279 |
P | 0.077 | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | |
Leg fat, % | r | 0.378 | 0.245 | –0.112 | 0.352 | 0.197 | 0.281 |
P | 0.075 | NC | NC | 0.099 | NC | NC | |
Leg FMI, kg/m2 | r | 0.423 | 0.285 | –0.135 | 0.371 | 0.216 | 0.328 |
P | 0.044a | NC | NC | 0.081 | NC | NC | |
Lean mass, g | r | 0.074 | –0.141 | –0.277 | 0.077 | –0.164 | 0.122 |
P | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | |
LMI, kg/m2 | r | 0.071 | –0.009 | –0.051 | –0.094 | –0.038 | 0.191 |
P | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | |
BMC, g | r | 0.264 | 0.017 | –0.104 | 0.37 | 0.074 | 0.34 |
P | NC | NC | NC | 0.082 | NC | NC | |
AUC (1.75 g/kg OGTT) | r | 0.172 | 0.171 | 0.216 | 0.32 | 0.228 | 0.093 |
P | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | |
HOMA-IR | r | 0.414 | 0.178 | –0.061 | 0.429 | 0.28 | 0.41 |
P | 0.05a | NC | NC | 0.046a | NC | 0.052 | |
HOMA-β | r | –0.201 | –0.104 | –0.064 | 0.208 | –0.045 | –0.083 |
P | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | |
Matsuda index | r | –0.366 | –0.225 | 0.011 | –0.504 | –0.298 | –0.346 |
P | 0.086 | NC | NC | 0.017a | NC | NC | |
Insulinogenic index | r | 0.587 | 0.269 | 0.275 | 0.67 | 0.475 | 0.411 |
P | 0.003a | NC | NC | 0.001a | 0.025a | 0.052 | |
Disposition index | r | 0.216 | 0.041 | 0.226 | 0.296 | 0.199 | 0.213 |
P | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC |
Correlation coefficient was calculated by partial correlation test adjusting for maternal prepregnancy body mass index.
OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test; AUC, area under the curve; HbA1c, glycosylated hemoglobin; NC, not correlated; FMI, fat mass index; LMI, lean mass index; BMC, bone mineral content; HOMA-IR, homeostasis model assessment value of insulin resistance; HOMA-β, homeostasis model assessment value of β-cell function.
a P<0.05; NC refers to P>0.10.
Characteristic | Value |
---|---|
Mother (n=25) | |
Age at delivery, yr | 33.7 (28.7–44.7) |
Prepregnancy weight, kg | 57.0 (44.0–85.0) |
Prepregnancy BMI, kg/m2 | 22.5 (17.7–32.4) |
Gestational weight gain, kg | 11.1 (3.4–18.9) |
Serum glucose of 50 g GCT, mg/dL | 174 (133–241) |
AUC during 100 g OGTT, mg/dL/hr | 484 (421–688) |
HbA1c at diagnosis of GDM, % | 5.5 (4.8–7.2) |
Insulin treatment during pregnancy | 10 (38.5) |
Duration of follow-up after delivery, yr | 5.6 (5.0–6.7) |
HbA1c during follow-up study, % | 5.6 (5.1–7.9) |
AUC during 75 g OGTT, mg/dL/hr | 279 (189–608) |
Glucose tolerance status at study | |
Normal | 12 (48.0) |
Prediabetes | 8 (32.0) |
Overt diabetes | 5 (20.0) |
Offspring (n=25) | |
Fasting glucose, mg/dL | 79 (56–113) |
HbA1c, % | 5.3 (4.3–5.9) |
Fasting insulin, μIU/mL | 10.7 (5.6–20.3) |
Glucose tolerance status at study | |
Normal | 22 (88.0) |
Prediabetes | 3 (12.0) |
Overt diabetes | 0 |
Breastfeeding | |
Duration of absolute breastfeeding, mo | 4.5 (0–12) |
Duration of total breastfeeding, mo | 12 (0–24) |
Active exercise, hr/day | 1.5 (0.3–3.0) |
Media-watching time, hr/day | 1.8 (0.0–5.0) |
Variable | OGDM (n=25) | Control (n=49) | P value |
---|---|---|---|
Sex, male:female | 12:13 | 26:23 | 0.806 |
Age at study, yr | 5.6 (5.00–6.70) | 5.9 (5.00–6.70) | 0.087 |
Birth weight, kg | 3.34 (2.81–4.00) | 3.15 (2.58–4.00) | 0.084 |
Height, cm | 112.9 (101.7–128.0) | 114.0 (105.0–128.0) | 0.407 |
Weight, kg | 20.5 (14.6–28) | 21.1 (17.0–33.9) | 0.219 |
BMI, kg/m2 | 16.0 (14.1–18.4) | 16.1 (13.7–23.1) | 0.273 |
BMI z-score | 0.33 (–1.16 to 1.53) | 0.37 (–1.57 to 2.96) | 0.285 |
DXA body composition | |||
Total fat mass, g | 3,769 (1,600–9,315) | 2,245 (1,037–9,795) | 0.004 |
Total fat, % | 18.0 (9.9–36.6) | 11.6 (4.7–33.4) | <0.001 |
FMI, kg/m2 | 2.68 (1.40–7.28) | 1.75 (0.68–7.73) | 0.002 |
Truncal fat mass, g | 1,289 (578–4,615) | 870 (314–5,292) | 0.017 |
Truncal fat, % | 16.0 (8.1–40.5) | 10.0 (4.0–36.0) | 0.002 |
Truncal FMI, kg/m2 | 1.00 (0.49–3.61) | 0.67 (0.24–4.22) | 0.009 |
Leg fat mass, g | 1,638 (606–3,674) | 961 (333–3,850) | 0.002 |
Leg fat, % | 23.5 (12.9–39.0) | 15.4 (4.9–35.7) | <0.001 |
Leg FMI, kg/m2 | 1.17 (0.53–2.47) | 0.75 (0.22–2.48) | 0.001 |
Lean mass, g | 15,688 (11,291–19,566) | 16,941 (14,522–21,943) | 0.001 |
LMI, kg/m2 | 12.1 (10.9–13.2) | 13.0 (11.6–15.2) | <0.001 |
BMC, g | 675 (488–846) | 698 (487–991) | 0.081 |
Variable | Value | 100 g OGTT |
HbA1c | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fasting | 1-hr | 2-hr | 3-hr | AUC | |||
Total fat mass, g | r | 0.49 | 0.337 | –0.074 | 0.473 | 0.298 | 0.371 |
P | 0.018 |
NC | NC | 0.023 |
NC | 0.081 | |
Total fat, % | r | 0.463 | 0.336 | –0.029 | 0.466 | 0.313 | 0.361 |
P | 0.026 |
NC | NC | 0.025 |
NC | 0.091 | |
FMI, kg/m2 | r | 0.524 | 0.381 | 0.01 | 0.504 | 0.367 | 0.407 |
P | 0.01 |
0.073 | NC | 0.014 |
0.085 | 0.054 | |
Truncal fat mass, g | r | 0.571 | 0.401 | 0.028 | 0.558 | 0.402 | 0.427 |
P | 0.004 |
0.058 | NC | 0.006 |
0.057 | 0.042 |
|
Truncal fat, % | r | 0.52 | 0.397 | 0.042 | 0.545 | 0.397 | 0.408 |
P | 0.011 |
0.061 | NC | 0.007 |
0.061 | 0.053 | |
Truncal FMI, kg/m2 | r | 0.593 | 0.429 | 0.098 | 0.582 | 0.454 | 0.452 |
P | 0.003 |
0.041 |
NC | 0.004 |
0.03 |
0.03 |
|
Leg fat mass, g | r | 0.376 | 0.23 | –0.217 | 0.336 | 0.141 | 0.279 |
P | 0.077 | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | |
Leg fat, % | r | 0.378 | 0.245 | –0.112 | 0.352 | 0.197 | 0.281 |
P | 0.075 | NC | NC | 0.099 | NC | NC | |
Leg FMI, kg/m2 | r | 0.423 | 0.285 | –0.135 | 0.371 | 0.216 | 0.328 |
P | 0.044 |
NC | NC | 0.081 | NC | NC | |
Lean mass, g | r | 0.074 | –0.141 | –0.277 | 0.077 | –0.164 | 0.122 |
P | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | |
LMI, kg/m2 | r | 0.071 | –0.009 | –0.051 | –0.094 | –0.038 | 0.191 |
P | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | |
BMC, g | r | 0.264 | 0.017 | –0.104 | 0.37 | 0.074 | 0.34 |
P | NC | NC | NC | 0.082 | NC | NC | |
AUC (1.75 g/kg OGTT) | r | 0.172 | 0.171 | 0.216 | 0.32 | 0.228 | 0.093 |
P | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | |
HOMA-IR | r | 0.414 | 0.178 | –0.061 | 0.429 | 0.28 | 0.41 |
P | 0.05 |
NC | NC | 0.046 |
NC | 0.052 | |
HOMA-β | r | –0.201 | –0.104 | –0.064 | 0.208 | –0.045 | –0.083 |
P | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | |
Matsuda index | r | –0.366 | –0.225 | 0.011 | –0.504 | –0.298 | –0.346 |
P | 0.086 | NC | NC | 0.017 |
NC | NC | |
Insulinogenic index | r | 0.587 | 0.269 | 0.275 | 0.67 | 0.475 | 0.411 |
P | 0.003 |
NC | NC | 0.001 |
0.025 |
0.052 | |
Disposition index | r | 0.216 | 0.041 | 0.226 | 0.296 | 0.199 | 0.213 |
P | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC | NC |
Values are presented as median (range) or number (%). BMI, body mass index; GCT, glucose challenge test; AUC, area under the curve; OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test; HbA1c, glycosylated hemoglobin; GDM, gestational diabetes mellitus.
Values are presented as median (range). OGDM, offspring of gestational diabetes mellitus mother; BMI, body mass index; DXA, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry; FMI, fat mass index; LMI, lean mass index; BMC, bone mineral content.
Correlation coefficient was calculated by partial correlation test adjusting for maternal prepregnancy body mass index. OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test; AUC, area under the curve; HbA1c, glycosylated hemoglobin; NC, not correlated; FMI, fat mass index; LMI, lean mass index; BMC, bone mineral content; HOMA-IR, homeostasis model assessment value of insulin resistance; HOMA-β, homeostasis model assessment value of β-cell function.