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Mitochondrial Stress and Mitokines: Therapeutic Perspectives for the Treatment of Metabolic Diseases
Benyuan Zhang, Joon Young Chang, Min Hee Lee, Sang-Hyeon Ju, Hyon-Seung Yi, Minho Shong
Diabetes Metab J. 2024;48(1):1-18.   Published online January 3, 2024
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2023.0115
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AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   ePub   
Mitochondrial stress and the dysregulated mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt) are linked to various diseases, including metabolic disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer. Mitokines, signaling molecules released by mitochondrial stress response and UPRmt, are crucial mediators of inter-organ communication and influence systemic metabolic and physiological processes. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of mitokines, including their regulation by exercise and lifestyle interventions and their implications for various diseases. The endocrine actions of mitokines related to mitochondrial stress and adaptations are highlighted, specifically the broad functions of fibroblast growth factor 21 and growth differentiation factor 15, as well as their specific actions in regulating inter-tissue communication and metabolic homeostasis. Finally, we discuss the potential of physiological and genetic interventions to reduce the hazards associated with dysregulated mitokine signaling and preserve an equilibrium in mitochondrial stress-induced responses. This review provides valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying mitochondrial regulation of health and disease by exploring mitokine interactions and their regulation, which will facilitate the development of targeted therapies and personalized interventions to improve health outcomes and quality of life.

Citations

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    Runyu Liang, Luwen Zhu, Yongyin Huang, Jia Chen, Qiang Tang
    Biogerontology.2024; 25(6): 923.     CrossRef
Original Articles
Complications
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Therapeutic Effects of Fibroblast Growth Factor-21 on Diabetic Nephropathy and the Possible Mechanism in Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus Mice
Wenya Weng, Tingwen Ge, Yi Wang, Lulu He, Tinghao Liu, Wanning Wang, Zongyu Zheng, Lechu Yu, Chi Zhang, Xuemian Lu
Diabetes Metab J. 2020;44(4):566-580.   Published online May 15, 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2019.0089
  • 7,082 View
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  • 12 Web of Science
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AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   ePub   
Background

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) has been only reported to prevent type 1 diabetic nephropathy (DN) in the streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) mouse model. However, the FVB (Cg)-Tg (Cryaa-Tag, Ins2-CALM1) 26OVE/PneJ (OVE26) transgenic mouse is a widely recommended mouse model to recapture the most important features of T1DM nephropathy that often occurs in diabetic patients. In addition, most previous studies focused on exploring the preventive effect of FGF21 on the development of DN. However, in clinic, development of therapeutic strategy has much more realistic value compared with preventive strategy since the onset time of DN is difficult to be accurately predicted. Therefore, in the present study OVE26 mice were used to investigate the potential therapeutic effects of FGF21 on DN.

Methods

Four-month-old female OVE26 mice were intraperitoneally treated with recombinant FGF21 at a dose of 100 µg/kg/day for 3 months. The diabetic and non-diabetic control mice were treated with phosphate-buffered saline at the same volume. Renal functions, pathological changes, inflammation, apoptosis, oxidative stress and fibrosis were examined in mice of all groups.

Results

The results showed that severe renal dysfunction, morphological changes, inflammation, apoptosis, and fibrosis were observed in OVE26 mice. However, all the renal abnormalities above in OVE26 mice were significantly attenuated by 3-month FGF21 treatment associated with improvement of renal adenosine 5′-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity and sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) expression.

Conclusion

Therefore, this study demonstrated that FGF21 might exert therapeutic effects on DN through AMPK-SIRT1 pathway.

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by  
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Basic Research
Fibroblast Growth Factor 21 Attenuates Diabetes-Induced Renal Fibrosis by Negatively Regulating TGF-β-p53-Smad2/3-Mediated Epithelial-to-Mesenchymal Transition via Activation of AKT
Sundong Lin, Lechu Yu, Yongqing Ni, Lulu He, Xiaolu Weng, Xuemian Lu, Chi Zhang
Diabetes Metab J. 2020;44(1):158-172.   Published online October 28, 2019
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2018.0235
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  • 40 Web of Science
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AbstractAbstract PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReader   
Background

Epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is required for renal fibrosis, which is a characteristic of diabetic nephropathy (DN). Our previous study demonstrated that fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) prevented DN associated with the suppressing renal connective tissue growth factor expression, a key marker of renal fibrosis. Therefore, the effects of FGF21 on renal fibrosis in a DN mouse model and the underlying mechanisms were investigated in this study.

Methods

Type 1 diabetes mellitus was induced in C57BL/6J mice by intraperitoneal injections of multiple low doses of streptozotocin. Then, diabetic and non-diabetic mice were treated with or without FGF21 in the presence of pifithrin-α (p53 inhibitor) or 10-[4′-(N,N-Diethylamino)butyl]-2-chlorophenoxazine hydrochloride (10-DEBC) hydrochloride (Akt inhibitor) for 4 months.

Results

DN was diagnosed by renal dysfunction, hypertrophy, tubulointerstitial lesions, and glomerulosclerosis associated with severe fibrosis, all of which were prevented by FGF21. FGF21 also suppressed the diabetes-induced renal EMT in DN mice by negatively regulating transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β)-induced nuclear translocation of Smad2/3, which is required for the transcription of multiple fibrotic genes. The mechanistic studies showed that FGF21 attenuated nuclear translocation of Smad2/3 by inhibiting renal activity of its conjugated protein p53, which carries Smad2/3 into the nucleus. Moreover pifithrin-α inhibited the FGF21-induced preventive effects on the renal EMT and subsequent renal fibrosis in DN mice. In addition, 10-DEBC also blocked FGF21-induced inhibition of renal p53 activity by phosphorylation of mouse double minute-2 homolog (MDM2).

Conclusion

FGF21 prevents renal fibrosis via negative regulation of the TGF-β/Smad2/3-mediated EMT process by activation of the Akt/MDM2/p53 signaling pathway.

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Reviews
Fibroblast Growth Factor 21 Protects against Atherosclerosis via Fine-Tuning the Multiorgan Crosstalk
Leigang Jin, Zhuofeng Lin, Aimin Xu
Diabetes Metab J. 2016;40(1):22-31.   Published online January 29, 2016
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2016.40.1.22
  • 5,939 View
  • 70 Download
  • 37 Web of Science
  • 32 Crossref
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) is a metabolic hormone with pleiotropic effects on energy metabolism and insulin sensitivity. Besides its antiobese and antidiabetic activity, FGF21 also possesses the protective effects against atherosclerosis. Circulating levels of FGF21 are elevated in patients with atherosclerosis, macrovascular and microvascular complications of diabetes, possibly due to a compensatory upregulation. In apolipoprotein E-deficient mice, formation of atherosclerotic plaques is exacerbated by genetic depletion of FGF21, but is attenuated upon replenishment with recombinant FGF21. However, the blood vessel is not the direct target of FGF21, and the antiatherosclerotic activity of FGF21 is attributed to its actions in adipose tissues and liver. In adipocytes, FGF21 promotes secretion of adiponectin, which in turn acts directly on blood vessels to reduce endothelial dysfunction, inhibit proliferation of smooth muscle cells and block conversion of macrophages to foam cells. Furthermore, FGF21 suppresses cholesterol biosynthesis and attenuates hypercholesterolemia by inhibiting the transcription factor sterol regulatory element-binding protein-2 in hepatocytes. The effects of FGF21 on elevation of adiponectin and reduction of hypercholesterolemia are also observed in a phase-1b clinical trial in patients with obesity and diabetes. Therefore, FGF21 exerts its protection against atherosclerosis by fine-tuning the interorgan crosstalk between liver, brain, adipose tissue, and blood vessels.

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Hepatokines as a Link between Obesity and Cardiovascular Diseases
Hye Jin Yoo, Kyung Mook Choi
Diabetes Metab J. 2015;39(1):10-15.   Published online February 16, 2015
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2015.39.1.10
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AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, which is considered a hepatic manifestation of metabolic syndrome, independently increases the risks of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus. Recent emerging evidence suggests that a group of predominantly liver-derived proteins called hepatokines directly affect the progression of atherosclerosis by modulating endothelial dysfunction and infiltration of inflammatory cells into vessel walls. Here, we summarize the role of the representative hepatokines fibroblast growth factor 21, fetuin-A, and selenoprotein P in the progression of CVD.

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FGF21 as a Stress Hormone: The Roles of FGF21 in Stress Adaptation and the Treatment of Metabolic Diseases
Kook Hwan Kim, Myung-Shik Lee
Diabetes Metab J. 2014;38(4):245-251.   Published online August 20, 2014
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2014.38.4.245
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AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) is an endocrine hormone that is primarily expressed in the liver and exerts beneficial effects on obesity and related metabolic diseases. In addition to its remarkable pharmacologic actions, the physiological roles of FGF21 include the maintenance of energy homeostasis in the body in conditions of metabolic or environmental stress. The expression of FGF21 is induced in multiple organs in response to diverse physiological or pathological stressors, such as starvation, nutrient excess, autophagy deficiency, mitochondrial stress, exercise, and cold exposure. Thus, the FGF21 induction caused by stress plays an important role in adaptive response to these stimuli. Here, we highlight our current understanding of the functional importance of the induction of FGF21 by diverse stressors as a feedback mechanism that prevents excessive stress.

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Original Article
Various Oscillation Patterns of Serum Fibroblast Growth Factor 21 Concentrations in Healthy Volunteers
Sang Ah Lee, Eunheiu Jeong, Eun Hee Kim, Mi-Seon Shin, Jenie Yoonoo Hwang, Eun Hee Koh, Woo Je Lee, Joong-Yeol Park, Min-Seon Kim
Diabetes Metab J. 2012;36(1):29-36.   Published online February 17, 2012
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2012.36.1.29
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  • 13 Crossref
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   
Background

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) was originally identified as a paroxysm proliferator activated receptor-α target gene product and is a hormone involved in metabolic regulation. The purpose of this study was to investigate the diurnal variation of serum FGF21 concentration in obese and non-obese healthy volunteers.

Methods

Blood samples were collected from five non-obese (body mass index [BMI] ≤23 kg/m2) and five obese (BMI ≥25 kg/m2) healthy young men every 30 to 60 minutes over 24 hours. Serum FGF21 concentrations were determined by radioimmunoassay. Anthropometric parameters, glucose, free fatty acid, insulin, leptin, and cortisol concentrations were also measured.

Results

The serum FGF21 concentrations displayed various individual oscillation patterns. The oscillation frequency ranged between 6 and 12 times per day. The average duration of oscillation was 2.52 hours (range, 1.9 to 3.0 hours). The peaks and troughs of FGF21 oscillation showed no circadian rhythm. However, the oscillation frequency had a diurnal variation and was lower during the light-off period than during the light-on period (2.4 vs. 7.3 times, P<0.001). There was no difference in the total frequency or duration of oscillations between non-obese and obese subjects, but obese individuals had increased numbers of larger oscillations (amplitude ≥0.19 ng/mL).

Conclusion

Various oscillation patterns in serum FGF21 concentration were observed, and reduced oscillation frequencies were seen during sleep. The oscillation patterns of serum FGF21 concentration suggest that FGF21 may be secreted into systemic circulation in a pulsatile manner. Obesity appeared to affect the amplitude of oscillations of serum FGF21.

Citations

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