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From articles published in Diabetes & Metabolism Journal during the past two years (2022 ~ ).

Review
Pathophysiology
Insulin Resistance: From Mechanisms to Therapeutic Strategies
Shin-Hae Lee, Shi-Young Park, Cheol Soo Choi
Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(1):15-37.   Published online December 30, 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0280
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  • 156 Web of Science
  • 180 Crossref
AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   ePub   
Insulin resistance is the pivotal pathogenic component of many metabolic diseases, including type 2 diabetes mellitus, and is defined as a state of reduced responsiveness of insulin-targeting tissues to physiological levels of insulin. Although the underlying mechanism of insulin resistance is not fully understood, several credible theories have been proposed. In this review, we summarize the functions of insulin in glucose metabolism in typical metabolic tissues and describe the mechanisms proposed to underlie insulin resistance, that is, ectopic lipid accumulation in liver and skeletal muscle, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and inflammation. In addition, we suggest potential therapeutic strategies for addressing insulin resistance.

Citations

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Original Article
Guideline/Fact Sheet
Diabetes Fact Sheet in Korea 2021
Jae Hyun Bae, Kyung-Do Han, Seung-Hyun Ko, Ye Seul Yang, Jong Han Choi, Kyung Mook Choi, Hyuk-Sang Kwon, Kyu Chang Won, on Behalf of the Committee of Media-Public Relation of the Korean Diabetes Association
Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(3):417-426.   Published online May 25, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2022.0106
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AbstractAbstract PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReader   ePub   
Background
This study aimed to investigate the prevalence and management of diabetes mellitus, risk-factor control, and comorbidities among Korean adults.
Methods
We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of data from the Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey to assess the prevalence, treatment, risk factors, comorbidities, and self-management behaviors of diabetes mellitus from 2019 to 2020. We also analyzed data from the Korean National Health Insurance Service to evaluate the use of antidiabetic medications in people with diabetes mellitus from 2002 through 2018.
Results
Among Korean adults aged 30 years or older, the estimated prevalence of diabetes mellitus was 16.7% in 2020. From 2019 through 2020, 65.8% of adults with diabetes mellitus were aware of the disease and treated with antidiabetic medications. The percentage of adults with diabetes mellitus who achieved glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) <6.5% was 24.5% despite the increased use of new antidiabetic medications. We found that adults with diabetes mellitus who achieved all three goals of HbA1c <6.5%, blood pressure (BP) <140/85 mm Hg, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol <100 mg/dL were 9.7%. The percentage of self-management behaviors was lower in men than women. Excess energy intake was observed in 16.7% of adults with diabetes mellitus.
Conclusion
The prevalence of diabetes mellitus among Korean adults remained high. Only 9.7% of adults with diabetes mellitus achieved all glycemic, BP, and lipid controls from 2019 to 2020. Continuous evaluation of national diabetes statistics and a national effort to increase awareness of diabetes mellitus and improve comprehensive diabetes care are needed.

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Reviews
Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Diagnostic Approaches and Maternal-Offspring Complications
Joon Ho Moon, Hak Chul Jang
Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(1):3-14.   Published online January 27, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0335
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Graphical AbstractGraphical Abstract AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   ePub   
Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is the most common complication during pregnancy and is defined as any degree of glucose intolerance with onset or first recognition during pregnancy. GDM is associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes and long-term offspring and maternal complications. For GDM screening and diagnosis, a two-step approach (1-hour 50 g glucose challenge test followed by 3-hour 100 g oral glucose tolerance test) has been widely used. After the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome study implemented a 75 g oral glucose tolerance test in all pregnant women, a one-step approach was recommended as an option for the diagnosis of GDM after 2010. The one-step approach has more than doubled the incidence of GDM, but its clinical benefit in reducing adverse pregnancy outcomes remains controversial. Long-term complications of mothers with GDM include type 2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease, and complications of their offspring include childhood obesity and glucose intolerance. The diagnostic criteria of GDM should properly classify women at risk for adverse pregnancy outcomes and long-term complications. The present review summarizes the strengths and weaknesses of the one-step and two-step approaches for the diagnosis of GDM based on recent randomized controlled trials and observational studies. We also describe the long-term maternal and offspring complications of GDM.

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Complications
Pathophysiologic Mechanisms and Potential Biomarkers in Diabetic Kidney Disease
Chan-Young Jung, Tae-Hyun Yoo
Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(2):181-197.   Published online March 24, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0329
  • 11,474 View
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AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   ePub   
Although diabetic kidney disease (DKD) remains the leading cause of end-stage kidney disease eventually requiring chronic kidney replacement therapy, the prevalence of DKD has failed to decline over the past 30 years. In order to reduce disease prevalence, extensive research has been ongoing to improve prediction of DKD onset and progression. Although the most commonly used markers of DKD are albuminuria and estimated glomerular filtration rate, their limitations have encouraged researchers to search for novel biomarkers that could improve risk stratification. Considering that DKD is a complex disease process that involves several pathophysiologic mechanisms such as hyperglycemia induced inflammation, oxidative stress, tubular damage, eventually leading to kidney damage and fibrosis, many novel biomarkers that capture one specific mechanism of the disease have been developed. Moreover, the increasing use of high-throughput omic approaches to analyze biological samples that include proteomics, metabolomics, and transcriptomics has emerged as a strong tool in biomarker discovery. This review will first describe recent advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of DKD, and second, describe the current clinical biomarkers for DKD, as well as the current status of multiple potential novel biomarkers with respect to protein biomarkers, proteomics, metabolomics, and transcriptomics.

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Original Article
Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
Associations between Weight-Adjusted Waist Index and Abdominal Fat and Muscle Mass: Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis
Ji Yoon Kim, Jimi Choi, Chantal A. Vella, Michael H. Criqui, Matthew A. Allison, Nam Hoon Kim
Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(5):747-755.   Published online March 30, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0294
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AbstractAbstract PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReader   ePub   
Background
The weight-adjusted waist index (WWI) reflected body compositional changes with aging. This study was to investigate the association of WWI with abdominal fat and muscle mass in a diverse race/ethnic population.
Methods
Computed tomography (CT) data from 1,946 participants for abdominal fat and muscle areas from the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (785 Whites, 252 Asians, 406 African American, and 503 Hispanics) were used. Among them, 595 participants underwent repeated CT. The WWI was calculated as waist circumference (cm) divided by the square root of body weight (kg). The associations of WWI with abdominal fat and muscle measures were examined, and longitudinal changes in abdominal composition measures were compared.
Results
In all race/ethnic groups, WWI was positively correlated with total abdominal fat area (TFA), subcutaneous fat area, and visceral fat area, but negatively correlated with total abdominal muscle area (TMA) and abdominal muscle radiodensity (P<0.001 for all). WWI showed a linear increase with aging regardless of race and there were no significant differences in the WWI distribution between Whites, Asians, and African Americans. In longitudinal analyses, over 38.6 months of follow-up, all abdominal fat measures increased but muscle measures decreased, along with increase in WWI. The more the WWI increased, the more the TFA increased and the more the TMA decreased.
Conclusion
WWI showed positive associations with abdominal fat mass and negative associations with abdominal muscle mass, which likely reflects the abdominal compositional changes with aging in a multi-ethnic population.

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Reviews
Others
Current Trends of Big Data Research Using the Korean National Health Information Database
Mee Kyoung Kim, Kyungdo Han, Seung-Hwan Lee
Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(4):552-563.   Published online July 27, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2022.0193
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AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   ePub   
Recently, medical research using big data has become very popular, and its value has become increasingly recognized. The Korean National Health Information Database (NHID) is representative of big data that combines information obtained from the National Health Insurance Service collected for claims and reimbursement of health care services and results obtained from general health examinations provided to all Korean adults. This database has several strengths and limitations. Given the large size, various laboratory data, and questionnaires obtained from medical check-ups, their longitudinal nature, and long-term accumulation of data since 2002, carefully designed studies may provide valuable information that is difficult to obtain from other forms of research. However, consideration of possible bias and careful interpretation when defining causal relationships is also important because the data were not collected for research purposes. After the NHID became publicly available, research and publications based on this database have increased explosively, especially in the field of diabetes and metabolism. This article reviews the history, structure, and characteristics of the Korean NHID. Recent trends in big data research using this database, commonly used operational diagnosis, and representative studies have been introduced. We expect further progress and expansion of big data research using the Korean NHID.

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Drug/Regimen
New, Novel Lipid-Lowering Agents for Reducing Cardiovascular Risk: Beyond Statins
Kyuho Kim, Henry N. Ginsberg, Sung Hee Choi
Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(4):517-532.   Published online July 27, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2022.0198
Correction in: Diabetes Metab J 2022;46(5):817
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AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   ePub   
Statins are the cornerstone of the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). However, even under optimal statin therapy, a significant residual ASCVD risk remains. Therefore, there has been an unmet clinical need for novel lipid-lowering agents that can target low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and other atherogenic particles. During the past decade, several drugs have been developed for the treatment of dyslipidemia. Inclisiran, a small interfering RNA that targets proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9), shows comparable effects to that of PCSK9 monoclonal antibodies. Bempedoic acid, an ATP citrate lyase inhibitor, is a valuable treatment option for the patients with statin intolerance. Pemafibrate, the first selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha modulator, showed a favorable benefit-risk balance in phase 2 trial, but the large clinical phase 3 trial (PROMINENT) was recently stopped for futility based on a late interim analysis. High dose icosapent ethyl, a modified eicosapentaenoic acid preparation, shows cardiovascular benefits. Evinacumab, an angiopoietin-like 3 (ANGPTL3) monoclonal antibody, reduces plasma LDL-C levels in patients with refractory hypercholesterolemia. Novel antisense oligonucleotides targeting apolipoprotein C3 (apoC3), ANGPTL3, and lipoprotein(a) have significantly attenuated the levels of their target molecules with beneficial effects on associated dyslipidemias. Apolipoprotein A1 (apoA1) is considered as a potential treatment to exploit the athero-protective effects of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), but solid clinical evidence is necessary. In this review, we discuss the mode of action and clinical outcomes of these novel lipid-lowering agents beyond statins.

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Others
Links between Thyroid Disorders and Glucose Homeostasis
Young Sil Eom, Jessica R. Wilson, Victor J. Bernet
Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(2):239-256.   Published online March 24, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2022.0013
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AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   ePub   
Thyroid disorders and diabetes mellitus often coexist and are closely related. Several studies have shown a higher prevalence of thyroid disorders in patients with diabetes mellitus and vice versa. Thyroid hormone affects glucose homeostasis by impacting pancreatic β-cell development and glucose metabolism through several organs such as the liver, gastrointestinal tract, pancreas, adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, and the central nervous system. The present review discusses the effect of thyroid hormone on glucose homeostasis. We also review the relationship between thyroid disease and diabetes mellitus: type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes, as well as guidelines for screening thyroid function with each disorder. Finally, we provide an overview of the effects of antidiabetic drugs on thyroid hormone and thyroid disorders.

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Original Articles
Complication
Association between Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Brain Atrophy: A Meta-Analysis
Tianqi Zhang, Marnie Shaw, Nicolas Cherbuin
Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(5):781-802.   Published online March 8, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0189
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AbstractAbstract PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReader   ePub   
Background
Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is known to be associated with cognitive decline and brain structural changes. This study systematically reviews and estimates human brain volumetric differences and atrophy associated with T2DM.
Methods
PubMed, PsycInfo and Cochrane Library were searched for brain imaging studies reporting on brain volume differences between individuals with T2DM and healthy controls. Data were examined using meta-analysis, and association between age, sex, diabetes characteristics and brain volumes were tested using meta-regression.
Results
A total of 14,605 entries were identified; after title, abstract and full-text screening applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, 64 studies were included and 42 studies with compatible data contributed to the meta-analysis (n=31,630; mean age 71.0 years; 44.4% male; 26,942 control; 4,688 diabetes). Individuals with T2DM had significantly smaller total brain volume, total grey matter volume, total white matter volume and hippocampal volume (approximately 1% to 4%); meta-analyses of smaller samples focusing on other brain regions and brain atrophy rate in longitudinal investigations also indicated smaller brain volumes and greater brain atrophy associated with T2DM. Meta-regression suggests that diabetes-related brain volume differences start occurring in early adulthood, decreases with age and increases with diabetes duration.
Conclusion
T2DM is associated with smaller total and regional brain volume and greater atrophy over time. These effects are substantial and highlight an urgent need to develop interventions to reduce the risk of T2DM for brain health.

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Metabolic Risk/Epidemiology
Sex Differences of Visceral Fat Area and Visceral-to-Subcutaneous Fat Ratio for the Risk of Incident Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Eun Hee Kim, Hong-Kyu Kim, Min Jung Lee, Sung-Jin Bae, Jaewon Choe, Chang Hee Jung, Chul-Hee Kim, Joong-Yeol Park, Woo Je Lee
Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(3):486-498.   Published online November 18, 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0095
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AbstractAbstract PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReader   ePub   
Background
This study aimed to determine the optimal cut-off values of visceral fat area (VFA) and visceral-to-subcutaneous fat ratio (VSR) for predicting incident type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).
Methods
A total of 10,882 individuals (6,835 men; 4,047 women) free of T2DM at baseline aged between 30 and 79 years who underwent abdominal computed tomography scan between 2012 and 2013 as a part of routine health check-ups were included and followed. VFA, subcutaneous fat area, and VSR on L3 vertebral level were measured at baseline.
Results
During a median follow-up of 4.8 years, 730 (8.1% for men; 4.3% for women) incident cases of T2DM were identified. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed that the optimal cut-off values of VFA and VSR for predicting incident T2DM were 130.03 cm2 and 1.08 in men, respectively, and 85.7 cm2 and 0.48 in women, respectively. Regardless of sex, higher VFA and VSR were significantly associated with a higher risk of incident T2DM. Compared with the lowest quartiles of VFA and VSR, the highest quartiles had adjusted odds ratios of 2.62 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.73 to 3.97) and 1.55 (95% CI, 1.14 to 2.11) in men, respectively, and 32.49 (95% CI, 7.42 to 142.02) and 11.07 (95% CI, 3.89 to 31.50) in women, respectively.
Conclusion
Higher VFA and VSR at baseline were independent risk factors for the development of T2DM. Sex-specific reference values for visceral fat obesity (VFA ≥130 cm2 or VSR ≥1.0 in men; VFA ≥85 cm2 or VSR ≥0.5 in women) are proposed for the prediction of incident T2DM.

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Complications
Advanced Liver Fibrosis Is Associated with Chronic Kidney Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease
Da Hea Seo, Young Ju Suh, Yongin Cho, Seong Hee Ahn, Seongha Seo, Seongbin Hong, Yong-ho Lee, Young Ju Choi, Eunjig Lee, So Hun Kim
Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(4):630-639.   Published online January 26, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0130
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AbstractAbstract PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReader   ePub   
Background
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is associated with chronic kidney disease (CKD). However, the causal relationship between NAFLD and CKD is uncertain, particularly in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). We aimed to investigate the association between the presence and severity of NAFLD and incident CKD in patients with T2DM.
Methods
In this longitudinal cohort study of patients with T2DM, 3,188 patients with preserved renal function were followed up for the occurrence of incident CKD. NAFLD was defined as the presence of hepatic steatosis on ultrasonography, without any other causes of chronic liver disease. Advanced liver fibrosis of NAFLD was defined as a fibrosis-4 index ≥2.67. CKD was defined as an estimated glomerular filtration rate <60 mL/min/1.73 m2.
Results
At baseline, 1,729 (54.2%) patients had NAFLD, of whom 94 (5.4%) had advanced liver fibrosis. During the follow-up of 8.3±3.6 years, 472 (14.8%) patients developed incident CKD: 220 (15.1%) in the non-NAFLD group, 231 (14.1%) in the NAFLD without advanced fibrosis group and 28 (31.1%) in the NAFLD with advanced fibrosis group. There was no increased risk of incident CKD in the NAFLD group compared to the non-NAFLD group (P=0.435). However, among patients with NAFLD, advanced liver fibrosis was associated with an increased risk of CKD (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.75; 95% confidence interval, 1.15 to 2.66; P=0.009).
Conclusion
Advanced liver fibrosis in patients with NAFLD is independently associated with an increased risk of incident CKD in patients with T2DM.

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Reviews
Technology/Device
Advances in Continuous Glucose Monitoring and Integrated Devices for Management of Diabetes with Insulin-Based Therapy: Improvement in Glycemic Control
Jee Hee Yoo, Jae Hyeon Kim
Diabetes Metab J. 2023;47(1):27-41.   Published online January 12, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2022.0271
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AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   ePub   
Continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) technology has evolved over the past decade with the integration of various devices including insulin pumps, connected insulin pens (CIPs), automated insulin delivery (AID) systems, and virtual platforms. CGM has shown consistent benefits in glycemic outcomes in type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) treated with insulin. Moreover, the combined effect of CGM and education have been shown to improve glycemic outcomes more than CGM alone. Now a CIP is the expected future technology that does not need to be worn all day like insulin pumps and helps to calculate insulin doses with a built-in bolus calculator. Although only a few clinical trials have assessed the effectiveness of CIPs, they consistently show benefits in glycemic outcomes by reducing missed doses of insulin and improving problematic adherence. AID systems and virtual platforms made it possible to achieve target glycosylated hemoglobin in diabetes while minimizing hypoglycemia, which has always been challenging in T1DM. Now fully automatic AID systems and tools for diabetes decisions based on artificial intelligence are in development. These advances in technology could reduce the burden associated with insulin treatment for diabetes.

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Guideline/Fact Sheet
2023 Clinical Practice Guidelines for Diabetes Mellitus of the Korean Diabetes Association
Jong Han Choi, Kyung Ae Lee, Joon Ho Moon, Suk Chon, Dae Jung Kim, Hyun Jin Kim, Nan Hee Kim, Ji A Seo, Mee Kyoung Kim, Jeong Hyun Lim, YoonJu Song, Ye Seul Yang, Jae Hyeon Kim, You-Bin Lee, Junghyun Noh, Kyu Yeon Hur, Jong Suk Park, Sang Youl Rhee, Hae Jin Kim, Hyun Min Kim, Jung Hae Ko, Nam Hoon Kim, Chong Hwa Kim, Jeeyun Ahn, Tae Jung Oh, Soo-Kyung Kim, Jaehyun Kim, Eugene Han, Sang-Man Jin, Won Suk Choi, Min Kyong Moon, Committee of Clinical Practice Guidelines, Korean Diabetes Association
Diabetes Metab J. 2023;47(5):575-594.   Published online September 26, 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2023.0282
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AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   ePub   
In May 2023, the Committee of Clinical Practice Guidelines of the Korean Diabetes Association published the revised clinical practice guidelines for Korean adults with diabetes and prediabetes. We incorporated the latest clinical research findings through a comprehensive systematic literature review and applied them in a manner suitable for the Korean population. These guidelines are designed for all healthcare providers nationwide, including physicians, diabetes experts, and certified diabetes educators who manage patients with diabetes or individuals at risk of developing diabetes. Based on recent changes in international guidelines and the results of a Korean epidemiological study, the recommended age for diabetes screening has been lowered. In collaboration with the relevant Korean medical societies, recently revised guidelines for managing hypertension and dyslipidemia in patients with diabetes have been incorporated into this guideline. An abridgment containing practical information on patient education and systematic management in the clinic was published separately.

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Original Article
Drug/Regimen
Effect of Lactobacillus plantarum LMT1-48 on Body Fat in Overweight Subjects: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial
Minji Sohn, Hyeyoung Jung, Woo Shun Lee, Tai Hoon Kim, Soo Lim
Diabetes Metab J. 2023;47(1):92-103.   Published online April 29, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0370
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AbstractAbstract PDFSupplementary MaterialPubReader   ePub   
Background
We investigated whether Lactobacillus plantarum strain LMT1-48, isolated from Korean fermented foods and newborn feces, is a suitable probiotic supplement to treat overweight subjects.
Methods
In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, 100 volunteers with a body mass index of 25 to 30 kg/m2 were assigned randomly (1:1) to receive 2×1010 colony forming units of LMT1-48 or to a placebo treatment group. Body composition was measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and abdominal visceral fat area (VFA) and subcutaneous fat area were measured by computed tomography scanning. Changes in body fat, VFA, anthropometric parameters, and biomarkers were compared between the two treatment groups (ClinicalTrials.gov number: NCT03759743).
Results
After 12 weeks of treatment, the body weight decreased significantly from 76.6±9.4 to 75.7±9.2 kg in the LMT1-48 group but did not change in the placebo group (P=0.022 between groups). A similar pattern was found in abdominal VFA between the two groups (P=0.041). Serum insulin levels, the corresponding homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance, and leptin levels decreased in the LMT1-48 group but increased in the placebo group (all P<0.05). Decrease in body weight and body mass index by treatment with LMT1-48 was correlated with increase in Lactobacillus levels significantly. LMT1-48 also increased Oscillibacter levels significantly, which were negatively correlated with triglyceride and alanine transaminase levels.
Conclusion
Administration of LMT1-48 decreased body weight, abdominal VFA, insulin resistance, and leptin levels in these subjects with overweight, suggesting its anti-obesogenic therapeutic potential.

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Review
Pathophysiology
Glial and Vascular Cell Regulation of the Blood-Brain Barrier in Diabetes
Xiaolong Li, Yan Cai, Zuo Zhang, Jiyin Zhou
Diabetes Metab J. 2022;46(2):222-238.   Published online March 18, 2022
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4093/dmj.2021.0146
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AbstractAbstract PDFPubReader   ePub   
As a structural barrier, the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is located at the interface between the brain parenchyma and blood, and modulates communication between the brain and blood microenvironment to maintain homeostasis. The BBB is composed of endothelial cells, basement membrane, pericytes, and astrocytic end feet. BBB impairment is a distinguishing and pathogenic factor in diabetic encephalopathy. Diabetes causes leakage of the BBB through downregulation of tight junction proteins, resulting in impaired functioning of endothelial cells, pericytes, astrocytes, microglia, nerve/glial antigen 2-glia, and oligodendrocytes. However, the temporal regulation, mechanisms of molecular and signaling pathways, and consequences of BBB impairment in diabetes are not well understood. Consequently, the efficacy of therapies diabetes targeting BBB leakage still lags behind the requirements. This review summarizes the recent research on the effects of diabetes on BBB composition and the potential roles of glial and vascular cells as therapeutic targets for BBB disruption in diabetic encephalopathy.

Citations

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